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Chapter 4
Computer-based Tools
While there are many different types of tools, in this chapter we focus on computer-based tools that can be used as an aid to the visioning and planning process described in Chapter 3. These tools can be especially helpful at two stages in the process: gathering, integrating, and forecasting information; and developing and assessing options.
Computer-based tools are not a magic bullet, however—in fact, at present they have several limitations. In this chapter we discuss their general strengths and weaknesses and then turn to a review of some tools that have been developed recently. Our review is not exhaustive; it covers a sampling of tools. While some have been developed by the government, others have been developed commercially. Our review should not be taken as an endorsement of any particular product; instead, it is meant to acquaint users of this guide with an array of possible aids.
General Strengths and Weaknesses
Computer-based tools increasingly are being used for community planning. They have several strengths. One strength is speed: Many programs, even those with enormous data inputs, can be executed on a personal computer in a matter of minutes. Another strength is graphics: For example, a computer-based model can be used for scenario analysis, with graphically displayed results, and the scenarios can be modified easily and then visually displayed. (E.g., air emissions from a 100-unit housing development can be compared with those from a 50-unit development.) A third strength is their ability to handle complex, multi-faceted issues: Some software packages have the capability of integrating a number of different factors. A fourth potential strength is their ability to systematically track results: Tools have been developed to support a variety of management uses, from budgeting to measuring progress.
There are, however, potential drawbacks as well. One is cost. Software modeling programs range from a few hundred dollars to upwards of $20,000, and the cost does not stop with the software and the equipment to run it on. In addition, technical expertise may be needed to run the program. A second potential drawback are the data sets that may be needed as input to the program. While data may have been collected through various means (see the section on "Gathering, Integrating, and Forecasting Information" in Chapter 3 and the discussion of indicators in Chapter 5; see also the data sources listed in Appendices A-D), the data may not be suitable for input to the computer-based program. A third potential drawback is the difficulty of adapting a software package to a community’s particular needs. If a program goes beyond the basic building blocks of spread sheets and geographic information systems (GIS) and deals with specific factors and their relationships, the program (and possibly the computer) will likely require modification, which may take time as well as money to hire the necessary expertise. (In fact, even GIS programs may have special requirements on how the photography can be loaded.) And while technical support may be included as part of the purchase price, there may be additional charges. Finally, some computer-based tools may quickly become outdated, necessitating periodic updates not only of the tool but of the computer.
GIS Capabilities in Tennessee
Most of the computer-based tools available for smart growth planning are GIS-based. To assess the GIS capabilities across the state, we consulted four sources: the Municipal Technical Advisory Service, the East Tennessee Development District, the local planning assistance offices within several of the Tennessee Department of Economic and Community Development’s regional offices, and the Office of Information Resources in the Department of Finance and Administration. From this assessment, it appears that the GIS capabilities across the state are varied.
The larger communities across the state have functional GISs, as well as some of the medium-sized cities. Many counties are adding GISs with state support, which has a long-term commitment to make GISs available in all of Tennessee’s municipalities and counties. However, it appears that many smaller municipalities are not likely to have GISs in the immediate future, due to fiscal and human resource limitations.
Criteria Used in Selecting and Reviewing Tools
In selecting the computer-based tools to be reviewed, we required that they be:
• PC-based. The software package had to run on a personal computer that required no more than a 486DX-processor, 8 MB of RAM, 20MB of hard drive space, and a CD-ROM drive. It should be noted that most computers have the processor and RAM capabilities. A CD-ROM drive on computers is becoming an increasingly common feature. We did not review software packages that run on a mainframe or mini-mainframe computer.
• Multi-dimensional. The software package had to address more than one dimension of sustainability (see the discussion in Chapters 1 and 5); in other words, it had to incorporate at least two of the three "legs" of sustainability: economic, environmental, and social factors.
• Adaptable to local level. Some computer-based tools are designed for state or multi-state use and are inappropriate for the sub-state level. For the most part, we considered only tools that are intended for the municipal or county level.
After the tools were selected, we looked especially at the following factors in evaluating them:
• Data requirements. Software packages that require extensive, hard-to-obtain data sets are, in general, less desirable.
• Cost. Whether a software package is affordable will depend upon the community’s budget. However, higher costs were, in general, considered to be less desirable since they might preclude the software package’s use in many communities.
• Training required. Staff training that was likely to be required was taken into consideration in our review, as was the level of technical support offered by the organization marketing the package. (Staff training is an especially important factor: If only one person knows how to run the program and s/he leaves, someone else will have to be trained.)
• Scenario capabilities. Tools that could construct scenarios based on "what if" questions were seen as being potentially more useful as a tool for visioning and planning. (For example: If an area of town is developed for residential rather than commercial purposes, what are the likely environmental, economic, and social consequences?)
Geographic Information Systems
Tools Reviewed
None of the tools reviewed excels on all of the criteria noted above. However, the following will give a flavor of the types of tools currently available for communities engaging in smart growth visioning and planning. We identified these software packages through a literature review, Internet searches, and contacts with selected communities across the nation engaging in sustainability activities.
CITYgreen
American Forests, a non-profit conservation organization focusing on trees and forests, provided a demonstration copy of its CITYgreen software package. CITYgreen is a Windows-based software package for ArcView, a desktop GIS. CITYgreen’s purpose is to map urban ecology and measure the economic benefit of trees, soils, and other natural resources. Therefore, its ability to incorporate more than one dimension of sustainability is extremely limited. Its intended users are those groups primarily concerned with the role of trees in soil erosion, storm water management, and air quality. Developers, local government engineers, and urban foresters are targeted users of CITYgreen.
The software package works well at the local level: It was demonstrated on a half-acre lot in a subdivision. The software has scenario capabilities; it can quantify the effects of cutting down trees versus planting different types of trees. Data requirements are moderate to significant, in that the software requires digital ortho photography. This photography at this point is limited to a few counties in the state (approximately 10 of Tennessee’s 95 counties).
The cost of the program is $825. Contact number: 1-800-368-5748; http://www.amfor.org.
Community 2020
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and Caliper Corporation offer Community 2020, a PC, GIS-based software package. Community 2020 includes geographic, demographic, and HUD program data with full-capacity mapping functions. The maps display housing conditions, economic indicators, income statistics, and population characteristics, as well as HUD-funded project locations. Users can zoom into a single block or view county-wide. Community 2020 can read text files, dBASE files, and other common data sources; the software package can also be modified to incorporate environmental or other social characteristics (e.g., crime rates). Scenario capabilities are unlikely without modification of the program, although Community 2020 could provide a basis of information to build upon. The data requirements are modest, in that Community 2020 already incorporates several social data sets (e.g., housing and census data). It is compatible with LandView III, EPA’s geographic reference tool (see description below).
The cost is $249 for the Southeast region. Contact number: 1-800-998-9999; http://www.hud.gov.
INDEX
INDEX is a computer-based decision support tool developed by Criterion, Inc., an urban planning and engineering firm specializing in sustainable community development. The firm is based in Portland, Oregon, and was established in 1979. We were only able to review a demonstration copy of INDEX downloadable from Criterion’s Internet site.
INDEX was designed for local application, and it incorporates a broad spectrum of social, environmental, and economic dimensions. It has modules for characterizing and analyzing physical and social aspects of an area. For example, the housing module includes a housing summary, housing affordability, operating energy and energy costs, natural gas energy pollutants, water use, and solid waste and recycling. With an alternate case scenario, a community can evaluate alternative community plans. After a base case has been loaded into the model, "what if" questions can be asked and INDEX automatically recalculates the measures of interest.
The cost of INDEX depends upon Criterion’s service fee from the community. For information on INDEX and Criterion, see http://www.crit.com/~crit or http://www.teleport.com/~crit. For further information, contact Eliot Allen, Criterion Planners/Engineers, 5331 SW Macadam Avenue, Suite 205, Portland, Oregon 97201; (503) 224-8606.
LandView III
LandView III is EPA’s electronic geographic reference tool. Developed in conjunction with the U.S. Bureau of the Census, this is its third-generation version. Landview III displays roads, rivers, and railroads; jurisdictional and statistical boundaries; EPA-regulated sites; and key geographic features provided by the U.S. Geological Survey and other federal agencies. It is distributed on a CD-ROM. It can be used to access 1990 census data; create a geographic map showing census data, hazardous waste sites, religious institutions, and schools; and estimate demographic characteristics within a radius from a given point. It also has search mechanisms. For maximum performance, LandView III requires a PC with a 586 or Pentium-class processor, and 16 MB RAM SVGA color display.
LandView III’s disks are $99 each for various regions of the U.S. or $549 for the complete set. For more information, see http://cdserver.er.usgs.gov/lviii.htm or http://www.epa.gov/swerosps/bf/lvinfo.htm.
PLACE3S
PLACE3S is a land use and urban design software package that uses energy as a measure for communities to understand how growth and development decisions contribute to improved sustainability. It integrates public participation, planning, design, and quantitative measurement in a five-step process appropriate for regional and neighborhood-scale assessments. PLACE3S quantifies energy, economic, and environmental effects of alternative plans. Thus, it appears to meet the criteria of being appropriate for the local level, capable of building scenarios, and considering the interaction among multiple dimensions. However, our assessment of PLACE3S was limited, because running this software package requires another package entitled INDEX (see description above), which was not available to us for testing.
Background information on PLACE3S can be found at http://www.sustainable.doe.gov/articles/place3s.htm#process. Additional contact sources are: Electric Power Research Institute, 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1395; (650) 855-8912; or California Energy Commission, MS-48, 1516 Ninth Street, Sacramento, California 95814; (916) 654-3948.
PoleStar
Although PoleStar is a software system designed for national or state use, we mention it here primarily because the Commonwealth of Kentucky used PoleStar in its 1996 project, "Forecasting Kentucky’s Environmental Futures." More recent use is a 1998 project with 11 European cities.
PoleStar was developed by the Tellus Institute, a non-profit research and consulting organization that develops and applies analytical software packages in the environmental field. The PoleStar software system is a scenario-building tool, and its most recent application at the local level in Europe may make it appealing. However, in Kentucky, an intensive data collection effort was necessary for PoleStar, and this may have hindered its effective use in that state. Staff on the "Forecasting Kentucky’s Environmental Futures" project were unable to compile all the Kentucky-specific information for the data elements needed for PoleStar to be a useful analytical system. Data collection efforts at the local level would likely be even more difficult.
In addition, because PoleStar requires an econometric forecasting model, this may hinder its use at the local level. The University of Tennessee’s Center for Business and Economic Research has an econometric model that it uses to prepare the Economic Report to the Governor, but this model cannot be adapted to the local level. Instead, an input-output model, such as REMI or IMPLAN, developed at the University of Minnesota, may be necessary for PoleStar’s use.
PoleStar costs $750 (license), which includes some technical support. Additional information on PoleStar can be found at http://www.channel1.com/users/tellus/tel3.html. Contact number: (617) 266-5400. A demonstration copy can be downloaded from the Internet site. Kentucky’s study was conducted by The University of Louisville’s Kentucky Institute for the Environment and Sustainable Development. Contact number: (502) 852-8032.
Smart Places
Smart Places is a GIS-based software package developed by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), a research consortium with a focus on the generation, delivery, and use of electricity. EPRI is based in Palo Alto, California, and was established in 1973.
Smart Places is designed to support communities considering the implications of alternative land use plans. One of its first applications was to the redevelopment of the Stapleton Airport site in Denver, Colorado, after the new airport opened in 1995. Seven resource features are included in Smart Places: land use, energy, transportation, communications, water, wastewater, and solid waste. Smart Places can be modified to include other features as well. Smart Places allows for scenario (what-if) analysis by computing different development scenarios. Smart Places allows the community to evaluate key community performance measures and how performance might be affected depending upon the type of development pursued. For example, one could use Smart Places to calculate energy requirements for a development of 50 versus 100 single-family homes. Through its interactive design, it prompts the user with specific questions about the average floor space, heating systems, etc.
Despite meeting the alternative scenario criterion and considering numerous environmental and land use consequences, the Smart Places version that we reviewed does not sufficiently cover social, economic, and/or environmental considerations. Smart Places was designed, however, to allow for expansion of its built-in features. Smart Places requires a personal computer and the community must have GIS software.
Smart Places is expected to be released commercially sometime in 1999. For additional information, contact Electric Power Research Institute, P.O. Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94304-1395; (650) 855-2720; or the University of Denver’s Smart Growth Project website: http://www.du.edu/~akeeley/dsp.html.
Other Tools
Other software packages that we learned of but did not review include LEAP (the long-range energy alternatives planning system) and WEAP (water evaluation and planning), offered by Tellus Institute. LEAP is an accounting framework for energy planning, with environmentally sound energy strategies as a component to the software. WEAP is a PC-based water planning tool. Information on these two programs can be found at: http://www.channel1.com/users/tellus. Tellus Institute, 11 Arlington Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02116-3411; (617) 266-5400.
EPA is developing two computer software decision support tools for planners and communities. DIET (Designing Industrial Ecosystems Tool) is designed to aid decision makers and planners in identifying industrial facilities that exhibit economic and environmental potential for eco-industrial development (e.g., eco-industrial parks). Input factors into the model include area available at the site, number of facilities needed at the park, available energy and water sources, pollution constraints, and zoning restrictions. DIET is intended to allow "what-if" analysis by estimating trade-offs among environmental, economic, and employment opportunities under different eco-industrial park planning scenarios.
Another EPA decision support tool under development is FaST (the Facility Synergy Tool), which can be used alone or in conjunction with DIET. FaST is used to identify potential materials exchange, energy trading, and purchasing coordination opportunities among industrial facilities. FaST achieves this potential coordination through a data base with facility profiles; those profiles can be used to identify possible facility linkages. There are 13 facility profiles under development, including organic chemical facilities, paint manufacturers, steel manufacturing, coal-powered electric utility, and composting facilities. In addition, EPA is working with Criterion, Inc., the developers of INDEX, on an update to that software package for use at the local level.
Looking Ahead
As more communities engage in smart growth planning activities, it is likely that there will be a number of software packages to aid decision makers. Some state- or national-level tools may be modified to be usable at the local level (as is occurring with PoleStar). No doubt many of the new software packages will have scenario capabilities. How extensively they will incorporate environmental, social, and economic sustainability dimensions remains to be seen.
There are many advantages to using computer-based tools: Their capacity to handle large and diverse data sets increases daily, and the more sophisticated versions enable complex interactions to be understood. However, they are only aids to decision making; they do not replace the need for good judgment by local officials, staff, and other community members. A community considering the use of a computer-based tool will, of course, be aware of the costs of the necessary hardware and software, but they also should be mindful that a commitment to developing staff technical capability is being made.
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